Brazil Culture

Comparison between marriage customs in America and Nigeria Research design It is often said that marriages are made in Heaven, and therefore, a suitable partner is very much of a necessity so as to lead a very happy and satisfied life. We often witness two types of Marriages, mainly, love marriages and arranged marriages. In love marriage, two adults decide to involve themselves in the holy bond of matrimony and in the other the families of the groom and the bride, or the third parties, a very active role in determining the match. In earlier days arranged marriages were the norm; this research provides a comparative analysis of the different practices and beliefs in  marriage  in the American and Nigerian contexts. The research contends that in effect,  marriage  rituals are characterized as dynamically developing to include or allow social changes that happen in terms of looking for a potential domestic partner . Marriage is the most important event in a persons life and the ceremony and tradition involve dare an integral of the day. Marriage customs and ceremony are based on the religion and the country the person is in. There are lots of difference in the marriage customs between Nigeria and America, like in country â€Å"Nigeria†, marriage procedures follows step by step which depends on where the man comes from, either from the eastern part (called the Ibos), western (called the Yoruba’s) and the northern part of Nigeria (called the Hausas), in this research I would be talking about marriages only in the western region. Marriage in the western region of Nigeria involves various stages before the couple can be declared as husband and wife. Before a man can marry a woman he ought to go through some traditional rituals and process which involves quality time and money. This involves three different stages, firstly is the â€Å"momimo† meaning â€Å"introduction† in Yoruba language, then the â€Å"idanaadehun igbeyawo† meaning â€Å"engagement† and lastly the main event called â€Å"ayeye igbeyawo† meaning wedding, after this last process then the couple can now called regarded as husband and wife. The first stage: â€Å"THE INTRODUCTION† is the part of the occasion whereby the man and his family goes to the woman’s family to ask of approval of their daughter’s hand in marriage. The procedure involves the groom and his family, and a person called â€Å"olopa iduro† meaning standing policeman. The standing policeman is the one who speaks on behalf of the groom’s family, he might be a family member or hired for the occasion. This same procedure also applies to the bride’s family but in this case the appointed speaker is called â€Å"olopa ijoko† meaning sitting policeman in Yoruba language. The whole procedure takes place in the bride’s family house where everybody will gather around waiting for the groom’s arrival, meanwhile preparations like food and other things would be made down by the bride’s family. The bride’s family is supposed to be dressed in the native attire which implies respect for the culture. The groom and his family are expected to come on the time appointed but there is a concept called â€Å"African Time† where no one is expected to arrive at the actual time appointed for the occasion, nevertheless if the groom and family arrive too late and keep them the bride and family waiting for short while, they might be asked to leave or probably allowed to appeal to the family by paying a traditional fine to the bride’s family before they could be accepted. hen the groom and his family gets to the brides place, as soon as the enter the house the men prostrate to the brides parents while the bride kneel down to the groom family, this is a respectful way of exchanging greetings according to Yoruba culture. After all the cultural greetings they take their seats whereby both families sits on opposites sides of the room with the bride and groom in the center while the olopa ijoko and olopa iduro take the seats in the middle so as to be get a close attention of everybody closely. The â€Å"olopa iduro† (the standing policeman) starts by introducing the groom and his family to the bride and her family then he brings out a proposal letter from the groom’s family and gives it to the brides family through â€Å"olopa ijoko† (the sitting policeman). The proposal is then read out orally to the bride’s family, since it is already comprehended that the couples are going to be married, the proposal is not usually rejected at this point. The groom also ays an amount of money called â€Å"owo ori iyawo† meaning bride price and this goes directly to the bride. When various introductions have been made, the proposal is accepted on the spot then they make arrangements for the second process of the marriage which is the ENGAGEMENT. THE ENGAGMENT is the part of the occasion whereby the bride and groom are tied together traditionally based on the Yoruba culture, this also takes place at the bride’s house and again they are responsible for the refreshments and other necessary preparations for the occasion. This part of the occasion, both families are meant to wear Yoruba traditional attire called â€Å"aso oke† which are more elegant and expensive, later on some prayers are said and some symbolic items of food are passed around by the â€Å"olopas† (The two policemen) and it’s then passed around to the guest, which is then used to bless the bride and groom in a prayer said in Yoruba language. The first item is â€Å"obi† (kola nut) then elder says â€Å"won ma gbo† meaning they will ripen Won ma to  meaning they will eat and not go hungry Won ma d'agba meaning they will grow old. The second item is â€Å"Ata ire: this consists of many seeds, and it is opened up, and the superstition is that the number of seeds that fall out is the number of children the couple will bear. The third item is Oyin (honey), sugar, ireke (sugar cane): these all symbolize that the union will be sweet. The grooms family also bring lots of other thing like yam, drinks, wine, palm oil, during all these before she shows up, she usually waits in her indoors until she’s called for, she comes out wearing a veil made of plaited hair which represents reserve and accompanied by one of her friends and taken to her parents then kneels down before so they can give her their blessings, she then sits near the groom, this is when she becomes unveiled. The couple jumps over a brush covered with flowers which symbolizes the stating of a domestic life, the groom then kisses her then everybody begins to eat and rejoice till the end of the occasion. The third and final stage of the marriage is the main wedding which is held in a church or mosque depending on the religion. This is the part of the occasion where they are joined by God and exchange vows. They can now be called husband and wife and go on a honeymoon if they could afford it but not really necessary, start living together and raise a family. On the other side American marriage are held upon high standards and based upon strong values that are shared between the two parties being wed, these two are brought together to form their sacred bondage of love and life with each other. Weddings in America are known to be the most flexible and varied in the entire world due to the variation of race and ethnic backgrounds that the American culture embodies. In America, a man and a woman meet in the most casual and social way like a bar, restaurant, events and other lots of places, they don’t need to do too much introduction to get married as long as they love one another. There is only one procedure in getting married in the United States which is mainly in the church. Friends and family assemble, soft slow romantic and the vows add to the charm of the marriage customs. In America, before the marriage the bride have a little get together called bridal night where only her and her female friends have a last night of all alone fun before her matrimonial life begins and also the groom also have his own party called bachelors party is going out with his male friends to have fun before his marriage. In an American marriage, the bride wears a pure white gown and the groom wears a black tuxedo. Since the weeding takes place in church, it is usually conducted by a priest who ask the people in the church if they have any problem with the joining of the man and woman as husband and wife or keep silent forever, then if nobody talks, the priest then ask the couple to kiss as a symbol of the union, sealed with love from God. It’s the custom for the newly wed to on a honeymoon and have a period of intimate time alone, like a vacation. It’s clearly seen that both marriage customs between the two counties are totally different, which has been the standard in as long time. Refrences and bibilographic source Marriage Customs in Many Lands (Hardcover – Jan 2005) by  H. Hutchinson Marriage Customs of the World: From Henna to Honeymoons (Hardcover – 2004/11/30 Knot Tied: Marriage Ceremonies of All Nations By  William Tegg African Ceremonies  by  Carol Beckwith Culture and Customs of Nigeria (Series – Culture and Customs of Africa) By toyin falola

To Kill a Mocking Bird Essay

To Kill A Mocking Bird the character Tactics is a major role model to his children. During the novel Tactics teaches his children many Important values. The main values include: everyone is equal, to put yourself in other peoples shoes, and not to Judge others before you get to know them. Everyone is equal Is a major value that Tactics teaches his children. He wants to teach them that no matter what color, social status or appearance people are people and they should be treated politely and fairly.An example of this Is where Tactics chooses to defend a Negro, he shows his children that although this man Is a Negro (despised by the white community) he Is going to defend him Like any other person. â€Å"If I TLD I couldn't hold my head up In town, I couldn't represent this country In the legislature, I couldn't tell you or Gem not to do something again. † This shows that If Tactics were to refuse to represent Tom, Just because he Is a Negro, he would utterly ashamed of himself. He teaches his children that It Is wrong to treat someone Like badly Just because of their different colored skin. L don't see any harm in letting her go out there. Called look after her there as well as she does here. † This quote shows that Tactics trusts this person. It shows that he considers her as an equal adult and see's her fit to look after his children out of work hours. This sends a hidden message to his children that everyone is equal no matter what status they have. Equality is a big value that Tactics teaches his children and as they grow up they learn this valuable lesson. Understanding others is another important value that Tactics wants to teach his children.He wants them to put themselves in other peoples shoes so they can better understand people and accept them for who they are. An example of this is when Scout starts talking about her first day of school and the topic comes to Miss Caroline â€Å"-until you climb into his skin and walk around in it. †˜ Tactics said that I had learned many things today and Miss Caroline had learned several things herself. She had learned not to hand something to a Cunningham, but if Walter and I had put ourselves in her shoes we'd have seen it was only an honest mistake on her part†¦. By telling Scout this, Tactics is getting his values across to his daughter. Tactics is teaching her to ‘put herself in other people's shoes'. Another example of understanding others is when Mr.. Lowell insults Tactics. â€Å"Gem see if you can stand in bib Ell's shoes for a minute. I destroyed his last shred of credibility at that trial, if he had any to begin with. The man had to have some kind of comeback, his kind always does. So if spitting in my face and threatening me will save Male Lowell one extra beating, that's something I'll gladly take†¦.. Once again Tactics Is teaching his children this Important value. In the end Gem and Scout have a better understanding of people because of their fa thers values. Do not Judge other's before you meet them Is another Important value to Tactics. Tactics wants his children not to Judge people because of gossip. An example of this Is Tom Robinson. Everyone In the town assumed he was guilty straight away, Just because he Is a Negro. â€Å"that all Negroes lie, that all Negroes are basically immoral beings, that all Negro men are not to be trusted around our women,†¦You know the truth and the truth is this: some Negroes lie, some is a truth that applies to the human race and not one particular race of men. † This is an important message as it is not only for Gem and Scout but for the whole community. It teaches them not to Judge on the color of skin. It also teaches them that although one may do wrong not all are like that. Another example of Judgment is Boo Raddled. He is portrayed as a evil person through rumors and gossip. As children Gem and Scout are terrified of Boo.They listen to all the gossip and stories and make up a mental picture that he is a horrible person. But as they grow Tactics teaches them not to Judge others before you meet them and they find out that Boo is actually a kind person. â€Å"†¦ Tactics, he was real nice†¦ â€Å"Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them. † It is at this stage that Scout learns this important value and starts understanding others. Tactics eventually teaches his children this extremely important value and it makes them better people.Tactics is an important role model for his children. He teaches them many important values to get them through life. The main focus of Attic's values relates to people and how you consider, understand, and Judge them. He teaches his children all of these values and they soon have a better understanding of people. As an important role model Tactics is partly responsible for their future, and by teaching his children these values he has given them a bright one. Word count: 905

The Quality of Leaders Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Quality of Leaders - Assignment Example The other leader who is least admired is the managing director of a local restaurant in the United States. This leader has been in position for about four years in what may generally be referred to as a static restaurant business. Among other things, this latter leader is autocratic, unapproachable, secretive, intemperate and unable to stick to a common plan. The two leaders achieved their levels of power and influence through different means. For example the admired leader rose through the ranks of the sporting club of which he is presently the Chief Executive Director. This is because the company that runs the club has an organizational structure or system that rewards hard work by promoting employees through the ranks of positions. With the type of diligence, hard work and submissiveness that is described by Ancona et al (2007 p. 96), the leader easily won the hearts of the Board of Directors to win promotional status whenever there was vacancy above his rank. As Andreu and Rosanas (2012) opine, leaders are at times able to buy their ways to the top by influencing the judgmental thoughts of the people who are responsible for their endorsement. It has therefore been reported of how the least admired leader managed to influence several people who had voting powers to vote for his promotion to the office in which he currently

Abdallah Azzam Brigades (AAB) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Abdallah Azzam Brigades (AAB) - Research Paper Example First, the paper will work to describe the history behind these particular types of organizations in the Middle East, working to show how the Arab war against Israel has worked to influence such groups, as well as the effects of anti-Semitism in the area. It will look into the effects of religion on terroristic organizations in the area, and go into the philosophy of the After looking into the history of the organizations, and how religion affects these organizations, a targeted look into how these organizations directly affect the United States will be made, specifically focusing on terroristic acts between 1968 and 1993, working to show how these have escalated over the years. Focus will be given to the socioeconomic parameters that promote terrorism, the assistance of political factors, and the people who are directly and adversely affected by these attacks. Information will be provided the distinctive characteristics a target group must have in order to be labeled a foreign terrorist organization (FTO) as well as details on the specific actions of certain groups who have had this label applied to them by the following the look into how these groups affect the United States, the focus of the paper will expand slightly in order to discuss the perspectives of global terrorism analysis, looking specifically into the terrorist group the Azzam Brigades, their activities in Lebanon, and how this affects the world on a global sociopolitical scale. The differences between the newer terrorist organizations and the classic terrorist will be reviewed, including what makes up the different types of distinctions, a comparison and contrast between the two, and where the line is drawn to determine what label is applied. Counter terrorism measures for the two distinctive types will be touched on briefly as In order to be able to better understand these types of organizations, the views of the Middle East in regards to the United States of America will be

To compare Pedagogy of the oppressed by Paulo Freire with the movie Essay

To compare Pedagogy of the oppressed by Paulo Freire with the movie The Slave Narratives - Essay Example On the other side of the coin, the ones who are oppressed are in search and yearn for their freedom and liberty and this deep seated struggle is a constant quest to regain their lost humanity. Liberation seems to be the light at the end of the tunnel, but how many of the oppressed gain their liberty? This oppressed group is looked down upon as the downtrodden lot who suffers and endures violence and exploitation meted out to them. When this vicious circle becomes too hard to bear, the oppressed who are not in a position to put up a fight become oppressors in return. Such incidents are brought out clearly in the movie ‘The Slave Narratives.’ This essay is going to analyze what takes place in ‘The Slave Narratives’ against the backdrop of Paulo Freire’s ‘Pedagogy of the Oppressed’ that portrays an incessant struggle by the oppressed to gain their freedom and humanity. According to Paulo, ‘The pedagogy of the oppressed is an instrument for their critical discovery that both they and their oppressors are manifestations of dehumanization.† (Paulo Freire,) The heartrending movie titled â€Å"Unchained Memories† was scripted from readings taken from the ‘Slave Narratives† which is an exclusive collection of documents based on the true stories and incidents of those people who lived beneath the yoke of slavery in ancient times. These true life narratives were transcribed by the ‘Federal Writer’s Project’ (WPA’s) writers and were made use of to film a very touching story filled with tragic life experiences of the oppressed slaves under their cruel white masters. ‘Unchained Memories’ belongs to the genre of social history based on race and ethnicity. The movie which is 74 minutes in length was shot in the United States. ‘The Slave Narratives’ which were housed safely in the Library of Congress, was made use of by directors Ed Bell

History and the Current Debate on Fox Hunting Literature review

History and the Current Debate on Fox Hunting - Literature review Example The view that man is superior to animal was also pointed out by Aristotle who thought that only humans were â€Å"capable of rational deliberation† (Trevelyan 1922). Hunting is one of the characteristics that mankind holds ever since its existence. It can be traced back to the days of the nomads whose only means of survival was through hunting. But with time, the verb has gone through a drastic change from a means of survival to a sport and thus a necessity has been replaced by entertainment. The Homo erectus hunted for living whereas the man of today hunts because hunting is a hobby and a means of amusement. It is an out-door sport with the intention to exhibit one’s skills or a perfect answer to one’s boredom. But for Paget, hunting is not a sport played at leisure but a dangerous pursuit of an animal in the places where they actually exist freely and reproduce. He says that a shot is solely registered for a hunt and if a man actually deviates from this reason, he is not a hunter and not a part of the sport of hunting (Paget 1900). Hunting is divided into various groups and fox hunting has been placed above all the other forms and has been marked to be the best sports by a group of people. It was and still continues to be the favourite sport of the Britons. Fox hunting is a blood sport as the animal world calls it and is a subject of much controversy as it is the shooting of animals for the purpose of enjoyment (Gast 2006). In Britain, the history of fox hunting holds a large volume and can be traced back to the 17th century when it was at its highest peak. It was the greatest sport until 1914 which was the year when the World War One started and it marked the end of the golden age. It was now surrounded by controversies and a full fledge debate up rooted between the masses whether it should be made legal or not and thus it was a turning point in the history of Britain (Wallen 2006). The history of Fox hunting can be traced back to 1534, when farmers in Norfolk, England started hunting down foxes with the assistance of their hounds. They were trained to follow the fox’s scent and only a hound could kill it while the hunter watched because its meat was not considered edible. The fox hunters were not much attracted to the idea of killing the fox with their own hands. They rather watched the hound do the honors while they sat on their horses and enjoyed the view. The fox was not meant for eating but was a pest that threatened farmers’ livestock and crops (Gradiner 2006). Thomas Fownes was the first man with a pack specifically for fox hunting. He sold it to a breeder in Yorkshire who further spread the transaction and by the middle of the century, several packs were seen that were exclusively kept for chasing down the foxes (Paget 1900). During the eighteenth century, fox hunting had replaced stag hunting and had spread out till Pytchley under the Lordship of Althrop (Trevelyan 1922). It had become the fa vourite sport of the riches who took it as a means of showing their wealth and valour. It was the sport of the higher class that existed in the society. There was a gradual division of class and culture and the upper class now aimed to live a much lavish life. They now, owned colossal estates and houses and enjoyed hunting because they were rich enough to buy and maintain horses and hounds (Gast 2006). The year 1753, is considered to be mark as an important era of fox

Stress management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Stress management - Essay Example mangers account for their time by assigning themselves work at respective times and using the timetable as a guide to ensuring the completion of each task. Without effective planning, people spend more time completing a single task thus wasting productive time in leisure at the expense of the organization as he portrayed by Chet in the case. At the epicenter of time, planning is punctuality a rule that Chet flaunts while at the organization. Punctuality is a virtue that accords an individual ample time to rest and carry out the tasks within the time limit thus not hurrying. It is easier to work at a relaxed mood since the mind is at ease and less likely to make mistakes. Chet is not prompt at the organization and therefore works under pressure a feature that facts the quality of his productivity. In his dispensation of duty, Chet flaunts a number of time management rules that include delegation, time limits and include subordinates in solution making. Setting a time limit arises from planning to thus develop an effective timetable. Lack of such a fundamental tie management tool makes the organization operate blindly thus resulting in losses. Decision-making is equally important in an organization, by incorporating subordinate in the process they contribute and feel appreciated by the organization. It becomes a motivation and may result in the subordinate contributing production ideas they are conversant with thus will take minimal time mastering a feature that improves the aptness of production. This way, the organization saves on time taken to teach the employees new methods of production, Chet on the other hand does not incorporate his subordinates in the decision making process and prefer to impose ideas on them. They fail to execute his orders appropriately thus contributing to his stress. From the case, it is evident that the organization also contributes to Chet’s predicament. The organizational structure does not have an effective communication channel

Media and its affect on Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Media and its affect on Terrorism - Essay Example The Government uses the media in attempts to limit the harm terrorist inflict to society and in attempts to punish or arrest those responsible for terrorist acts. The Government wants coverage to press forward their agenda and not the terrorists’ agenda. It uses the media to present terrorists as criminals and prevent glamorizing them so as to promote the perspective that blowing up a building, kidnapping a well-known individual, or hijacking an airplane are criminal acts despite the terrorists reasons (Raphael, 1). According to Joseph (1), well-known terrorist groups are adapting strategies and tactically progressing out because of comprehensive, global counterterrorism operations overseas. They are becoming expert at making use of homegrown terrorists, regional operatives, and communication technologies to the fullest, within reach for a long-term terror campaign against the United States. Nowadays, terrorist groups are enlisting, instigating, and guiding international strategies not just through Internet operations but by the use of a well planned, constant blend of propaganda videos as well as call-to-action messages disseminated via social media platforms, for example Face book, blogs, Twitter and YouTube (Joseph, 2). The social media framework of the terrorists is aiming disenfranchised youth with complex, fictional information and forming grassroots terrorists inside the borders of United States. thus, foreign jihadists are amplifying their chances of attacking the United States using a mix, multimedia community participant tactic intended to persuade citizen extremists to violence, organize ideological movements, create opportunities to enlist within the United States from relating world incidents, and promote domestic terrorists to lay down their own objectives and take direct action in the company of open-ended and open-source jihad at home. The tactic of getting together

Show how issues of social class are important in at least two of the Essay

Show how issues of social class are important in at least two of the works studied - Essay Example In all work, low social position of the main characters prevents them to achieve appreciation and recognition they deserve. The novel Heart of Darkness (1900) is one of the most unique and outstanding works based on philosophical and psychological interpretations, historical and sociological issues. Until the actual military conquest of most of Africa by Europeans, the continents populations, except in regions significantly influenced by intruders from Asia, were largely left free to shape their own individual paths of development. This novel describes the controls the means of production and hence the sale and distribution of products, the capitalist returns less to the workers than what the worker actually produces. This is called exploitation, and the rate at which the capitalists extract surplus from the labor of their workers is called the rate of exploitation. Marx expressed this as the rate of exploitation: surplus/variable capital. This means getting more out of the productive process for the same or lower costs. It means workers will have to produce more without receiving a commensurate increase in wages, that is, an increase in the rate of exploitation. â€Å"The vision seemed to enter the house with me - the stretcher, the phantom-bearers, the wild crowd of obedient worshippers, the gloom of the forests,†¦ the beat of the drum, regular and muffled like the beating of a heart - the heart of a conquering darkness† (Conrad). In the play, Amadeus P. Shaffer describes the impact of social class on a genuine and inability to resists social principles and values. The play concentrates on personal relations between Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Antonio Salieri and their rivalry. This play portrays that a unique talent of a person and his genius means nothing fo society which values high social position and wealth. First, this play helps legitimate prevailing class and status

Reality TV Essay Example for Free

Reality TV Essay Unscripted program, real people NOT actors in a specific environment Normal people with no discernible talent, no discernible insights, but who are willing, eager to be seen and heard living their own life. -â€Å"real life† television is filmed with out stoppage time, and then edited to catch the viewers eye -certifiable global pop-culture phenomenon Reality TV comes is all different forms now from daily life of real people such as Big Brother and Jersey Shore, sports shows, business shows like undercover boss and dirtiest jobs, talent shows such as American Idol and Dancing with the stars, family shows John and Kate plus 8, and motivational shows like biggest loser and survivor. This eventually led to being filmed and put on TV in 1948. â€Å"Candid Camera† (CQ researcher: Reality TV: Maryann Haggerty -In 1989 COPS came on air because of the writers guild of American strike. This show followed police during their daily activities. It began with no music or narration just a simple camera following a police. -Over on ABC, beginning in 1990, people were turning their own cameras on family and pets to make â€Å"Americas Funniest Home Videos -In 1992, reality TV was a novelty. In 2000, it was a fad. In 2010, its a way of life. Time Magazine article It wasnt until the premiere of ‘The Real World’ on MTV in 1992 that we began to witness the emergence of many of the textual characteristics that would come to define the genres current format,† -In 2008, the Emmys awarded a stature to the best host of a reality TV show for the first time, which was exciting news to all -ABC NBC Fox MTV CBS -In 2010 Reality TV is now a valid career choice. The New York Times estimated that at any given time, there are 1,000 people on air as reality TV stars. Topic 3: Addictiveness of Reality TV One reason for their popularity is financial: an hour of reality can cost a few hundred thousand dollars, compared to the one to three million for a scripted drama. But part of the reason fans become involved in the show is that they get invested in the good guys and bad guys. -Thats how people watch reality TV: you can doubt it, interrogate it, talk back to it, believe it, or not.

The South China Sea Dispute

The South China Sea Dispute On 26 May and 9 June 2011, just before and after the Shangri La Dialogue in Singapore, in which China emphasized its commitment of maintaining peace and stability in South China Sea, Chinese fishery patrol ships cut seismometer cables of Vietnams Binh Minh 02 and Viking 02 oil exploration vessels within Vietnams Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), triggering a series of public demonstrations in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city. Vietnamese accused China of systematic action that is aimed at turning the undisputed area belonging to Vietnam into an area under dispute in order to materialize Chinas nine-dotted line claim in the East Sea  [2]  . China responded to the complaint and protests by warning that any exploration in the vicinity of the disputed Spratly islands without its consent was a violation of its jurisdiction and sovereignty.  [3]   The incident is just another evidence for the increasing tension in the Sino-Vietnamese relations over the South China Sea dispute which has become a hot spot. The complex dispute is not only about the potential natural resources or strategic locations of the area, but most importantly the territorial sovereignty. In this dispute, Vietnam faces a challenging dilemma: how to maintain and develop the strategic bilateral ties with China and settle the dispute in favor of its national interest at the same time? Tracing the concerns of Vietnam, an overview of the dispute will be provided in the first section before it comes to the policy discussion in the second section, in which six possible options are put forward: (1) Multilateralize the dispute through ASEAN forum; (2) Internationalize the dispute by involving outside major powers; (3) Resort to the international law of the sea and international arbitration; (4) Build up self-reliance; (5) Go for joint management of overlapped resourc es; (6) Cooperate and struggle bilaterally and multilaterally. The paper concludes with recommendation of a comprehension approach which is cooperating and struggling bilaterally and multilaterally (policy option 6). II. OVERVIEW OF THE SOUTH CHINA SEA DISPUTE BETWEEN VIETNAM AND CHINA 1. The significance of the South China Sea The South China Sea is a part of the Pacific Ocean which encompasses a large area of about 3,500,000 square kilometers, spreading from Singapore and the Strait of Malacca to the Strait of Taiwan. It comprises more than 200 small islands, reefs, and cays, most of which are inhabited. The two largest archipelagoes are the Paracel islands which covers an area of about 15,000 square kilometers with about 30 islets and reefs, and the Spratly islands which stretches over an area of 180,000 square kilometers with more than 100 features.  [4]  It is widely acknowledged that the South China Sea, especially the two largest archipelagoes, has a great importance in terms of geo-politics as well as geo-economics because of its strategic location as a busy passageway for about one third of worlds ships and presumed rich natural resources, especially oil and gas, underneath.  [5]   2. The South China Sea Dispute Apart from Vietnam and China, the South China Sea dispute involves four other disputants, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei and Taiwan. All disputants except Brunei occupy certain area. Vietnam occupies 21 islands, the Philippines, eight, China, seven, Malaysia, five and Taiwan, one.  [6]  All claims are made based on different historical rights, colonial inheritance, territorial and legal grounds, including overlapping and competing claims over either maritime zone or sovereignty over islands. The Philippines refers to the principle of discovery of unclaimed territories and claims sovereignty over Kalayaan archipelago which comprises eight islands in the Spratly archipelago  [7]  . Brunei and Malaysia make advantage of legal bases given by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS or Convention) to assert their sovereignty rights over reefs for Brunei and islands in the southern Spratly for Malaysia. Taiwan, based on historical ground, claims its right over the Pratas island which used to be occupied by China. China claims are based on the so-called nine-dotted U-shape line which first appeared in a map published in 1948 in a private publication in China and encompasses about 80 percent of the South China Sea, including the Paracel and the Spartly islands. Despite China claims its sovereignty over this area, giving that it has historical rights to do so because the Han dynasty in the second century used it as the navigation route,  [8]  it has never officially declared and ignored calls to clarify if it also claims to the rights over maritime space enclosed which is far beyond 12 nautical miles from the disputed islands and includes EEZ and continental shelves that overlaps the continental shelves of other claimants as stipulated in the 1982 UNCLOS.  [9]  While the authenticity of Chinas historical rights to sovereignty over the area as well as its claim over the maritime water remains unclear, China opposes any activities by other claimants within this U-shape line. Vietnam makes reference to historical data, effective occupation, colonial inheritance and legal ground to claim its sovereignty over the Paracel and the Spratly islands as well as more than 200 nautical miles of continental rights as stipulated in the 1982 UNCLOS. It has cited a number of credible documents and maps to prove its occupation and sovereignty exercise over the islands since at least the Le dynasty in the 15th century, throughout the French colonial time until 1974, when China used force to seize the Paracel, killing 53 Vietnamese soldiers  [10]  and 1988, when the two sides clashed again in the Spartly islands, Vietnam lost 7 islands to China and 64 Vietnamese soldiers were killed.  [11]  The Paracel and 7 lost islands in the Spratly islands were placed under the jurisdiction of Hainan Province. Below are some recent developments that provide a snapshot of the increasing tension between the two countries over the dispute: In May 2009, Vietnam and Malaysia submitted a joint report on territorial claims in the South China Sea to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. In response, China submitted its U-shape line map.  [12]   On 26 May and 9 June 2011, China ship cut the cables of two Vietnamese oil explorations vessels, ramping up the public protests in Vietnam. China detains and seizes hundreds of Vietnamese fishermen every year, accusing them of violating its unilateral fishing ban. On 22 February 2012, Vietnam accused China of shooting and damaging a Vietnamese fishing boat near the Paracel. On 3 March 2012, China detained 21 Vietnamese fishermen and their two boats in waters near the Paracel and demanded each boat $11,000. Vietnam strongly protested against the requests  [13]  . On 15 June 2012, Vietnam conducted a military air patrol over the Spratly islands and then announced regular air patrol practice. In response, on 28 June 2012, China also commenced regular air patrol to the Spratly islands.  [14]   China warns and threatens foreign companies for joint oil exploration activities with Vietnam in the overlapping area while offering oil blocks to its foreign partners. On 23 June 2012, China offered nine blocks located within Vietnams 200 nautical miles EEZ to foreign operators. Vietnam condemned Chinas illegal offer and requested China to cease the bidding.  [15]   On 21 June 2012, Vietnam passed the Law of the Sea of Vietnam restating its claims over the Paracel and Spratlly islands. In a tit-for-tat response, China immediately announced the establishment of prefecture-level Sansha City (officially created on 24 July 2012) to administer the disputed islands and surrounding waters as well as the establishment of a military base (officially created on 19 July 2012) in the City. Vietnam condemned the establishment of Sansha City, stating that it violated international law, seriously violating Vietnam sovereignty over the Paracel and Spratly archipelagoes.  [16]   The above developments indicate an action-reaction cycle with escalating strains in the South China Sea which makes it difficult to reach a solution acceptable by the both sides. The following section will discuss several policy options for Vietnam to settle the South China Sea dispute with China. III. POLICY OPTIONS 1. Multilateralize the dispute through ASEAN forum This option implies that Vietnam should continue to highlight the issue in ASEAN; emphasize the impacts of the dispute on the regional stability and peace in order to forge a united front to persuade China to solve the issue peacefully and multilaterally.  [17]   ASEAN comprises four out of six claimants, thus it is the most important platform for claimants to meet, discuss and seek for available solutions. The body achieved some success in building mutual trust and confidence between ASEAN claimants and China. Some evidences are the 1992 Declaration on the South China Sea, the 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties (DOC) and the 2011 Guidelines to Implement the DOC in which stated that the dispute should be solved by peaceful means, through friendly consultations and negotiations by sovereign states directly concerned. These documents, however, have no legal force. Therefore, ASEAN and China have also agreed in principle that a more binding Code of Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (COC) needs to be quickly completed and adopted. Yet the ASEANs effectiveness in solving the dispute is being questioned. As mentioned, the DOC was just a political statement with no legal binding requirement. China agreed to discuss the COC at an appropriate timing but has never stated when an appropriate timing is.  [18]  Most importantly, divisions between member states, stemming from different perspectives on the South China Sea and differences in the value each member places on their relations with China, have prevented ASEAN from coming to a consensus on the issue.  [19]  On one side, claimants might share the same stand towards China but none of them is willing to compromise with other claimants over the sovereignty issue. On the other side, non-claimants ASEAN members value the relations with China which are believed to be affected if they are pulled into any undesirable conflict with China. The recent failure of ASEAN in bringing forward a joint statement at the July 2012 Foreign Ministers Meeting in Phnom Penh due to the divergence in attitudes towards the dispute is a clear evidence for this internal ASEAN clash. This also indicates Chinas influence over other ASEAN members, Cambodia as ASEAN Chair in this case, to maintain its interests. Even if Vietnam, through its lobby efforts to pull ASEAN claimants and non-claimants together, it is still difficult to reach a solution since China insists on its bilateral negotiation strategy of treat each case differently, and defeat each one separately.  [20]   2. Internationalize the dispute by involving outside major powers This option suggests that Vietnam should deepen its multifaceted relations, including economic, diplomatic and military cooperation, with outside powers who have interests in the South China Sea; emphasize the importance of the peace and stability of South China Sea towards their interests in order to encourage a common effort of navigating Chinas assertive claims and actions in the region. Over the past years, Vietnam has had some success in expanding and strengthening its relations with major powers through a wide range of cooperation, including regular military visits, military technology and weapons exchanges and joint energy exploration. For example, to deepen relations with the U.S who has the largest economic interests in the South China Sea with $1.2 trillion out of $5.3 trillion of total trade passes, Vietnam has facilitated joint rescue exercise with the U.S army, allowed U.S warship to access the military Carm Ranh Bay for the first time since the end of the Vietnam War  [21]  , offered gas and oil block in Vietnams EEZ to the U.S ExxonMobil oil company, etc. This results in a stronger stake of the U.S in the disputed area. At the 2010 Shangri La Dialogue in Singapore, the then U.S Defense Secretary Robert Gates expressed U.S interests in Vietnams offshore oil exploration and declared that the U.S opposes to any effort to intimidate U.S corporations or th ose of any nation engaged in legitimate economic activity  [22]  . At the 2010 ASEAN Regional Forum in Hanoi, U.S. Secretary Hillary Clinton declared that the United States has a national interest in freedom of navigation, open access to Asias maritime commons and respect for international law in the South China Sea and called for a collaborative diplomatic process by all claimants for resolving the various territorial disputes. Apart from the U.S, Vietnam has been trying to boost relations with other major powers. For instance, in September 2011, Vietnam was successful to reach an agreement on joint exploration with India. Vietnam has also supported activities of Russian energy company Gazprom in joint oil exploration projects in Vietnams maritime waters. Besides, during 2009 alone, Vietnam bought from Russia six Kilo-grass submarines and 12 Su-30MKK fighters, becoming one of top weapon importers of Russia  [23]  . The growing relationship with major powers as well as incre asing involvement of these major powers in the disputed area does help to increase Vietnams leverage to China in the South China Sea dispute. Now China made efforts to further engage Vietnam through party-to-party talks and keep their disagreements behind closed door.  [24]   However, Vietnam should stay aware that strong alignments with major powers to balance too aggressively against China would irritate China and lead to subsequent negative economic and political consequences. Meanwhile, Vietnam cannot outright rely on any major powers because these countries have their own priorities and their consistent longstanding position in the South China Sea is neutrality. In other words, they might be willing to sacrifice the relation with Vietnam if it conflicts with their priority interests. Vietnam should never get too close to any powers but better to maintain limited alignments to just keep China in check. 3. Resort to the international law of the sea and international arbitration This option recommends that Vietnam should resort to the international frameworks to solve the dispute, that is, Vietnam should present evidences of its sovereignty rights over the Paracel and Spratly islands, which abides by the 1982 UNCLOS, to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in order to gain international support and acknowledgment of Vietnams facts on the ground while at the same time putting pressure on China to clarify its claims and evidences. The 1982 UNCLOS is aimed to manage potential conflicts/disputes among countries over the rights to the worlds ocean. It holds valid legal title to sovereignty over their islands has exclusive right to exploit living and nonliving resources within 12 miles of their territorial sea and 200 miles beyond, known as the exclusive economic zone (EEZ).  [25]   Vietnam has ratified and abided by the 1982 UNCLOS since 1994. Its 2012 Law of the Sea, in which clarifying its territorial seas, EEZ and continental shelf, was also built on the provisions of the 1982 UNCLOS. Vietnam has also been providing its historical data showing that it has been exercising effective occupation of the islands for a long time. Recently, it introduced a 1904 Chinese official map which showed that the Paracel and Spratly islands were not belong to China  [26]  and received attention from international experts and community. Therefore, it is very likely that Vietnam will win over China if the case is sent to the international tribunal. China is also a participant of the UNCLOS (since 1996) but its interpretation of the Convention is controversial. China has never clarified its vague claim of historical rights of the area inside the U-shape line which is not suitable and so unlikely to be supported by the provisions of the law. It rejected the mechanism for international arbitration and adjudication provided by UNCLOS  [27]  and prefers bilateral negotiations with other claimants in which China will have more advantageous position. 4. Build up self-reliance This option proposes Vietnam to build up its internal economic and military capabilities to deter Chinas aggression by continuing reforming its economy and modernizing its military forces. Given that China used to use force to seize the Paracel and a part of the Spratly in the past as well as it has been developing its military strengths and being more assertive to claim its ownership over the islands, there could be a chance that China would use force again and/or use its overwhelming economic power to put pressure on Vietnam and other countries to give up on the issue. Being aware of Chinas threat, Vietnamese government has been developing its internal strengths, both economic and military inclusive, especially military capability. Compared to 2003, Vietnams military spending has been increased by 83% in 2012  [28]  , in which mostly is invested in developing naval and air forces; a large amount of budget has been spent on weapons purchase. Vietnam is currently one of the top importers of Russias weapons  [29]  . It is also persuading the U.S to lift the ban on lethal weapons so that it could purchase more U.S weapons and modernize military.  [30]  Pessimists believe that despite economic and military strengthening efforts, Vietnam can never outweigh China in economy and military power but still under Chinas influence. Economically, China is the largest economic partner of Vietnam with expected two-way trade of $60 billion in 2015; Chinese products currently account 60% imports of Vietnam  [31]  . Militarily, Vietnams 2012 military budget is $3.3 billion while Chinas is $106.4 billion  [32]  . However, these economic and military strengthening efforts still deserve a try because if conflict is the case, it will impose certain costs on China and so deter Chinas aggressive actions. 5. Go for joint management of overlapped resources This option implies Vietnams possible consideration of joint management of resources at areas where claims are overlapped with China. This means both sides have to reach a consensus over the measure of maritime space surrounding each island, regardless of ownership, and then agree to jointly administer the overlapped claimed area outside the maritime space. This differs from the early 1990s proposal of shelving disputes and going for joint development by the late Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping in which China ignored the possibility of joint development in the Paracel while proposing a joint management with Vietnam in the West Vanguard Bank Basin locating in Vietnams maritime waters.  [33]   Obstacles to this attempt of joint management is that China claims much of the South China Sea, including most of the Vietnams islands and asserts its rights to unilaterally benefit from the resources while Vietnam is also strong in its position of sovereignty rights over these islands. Both sides have condemned each other of exploring and exploiting natural resources, mainly fish and gas-oil, within their maritime waters. China consistently challenged foreign oil companies having joint exploration activities with Vietnam and warned them of unspecified consequences in their business dealings with China. This uncompromising attitude by the both sides, especially by China, makes it impossible for a consensus to be reached on measuring the overlapped area which is not really belongs to any party. 6. Policy Recommendation: Cooperate and struggle bilaterally and multilaterally Vietnam should consider a comprehensive approach that provides it with flexibility and effectiveness in dealing with China. This option is, therefore, recommended because it develops a comprehensive approach by taking into account of both bilateral and multilateral cooperation and struggle, considering the special characteristics of the Sino-Vietnamese relationship: Deepen the multifaceted bilateral relationship with China through different networks of Party-to-Party, Government-to-Government, and People-to-People, especially Party-to-Party channel. History shows that the special relation between the two communist parties enables the two sides to repair their bilateral relations fast after serious incidents. For example, strains in the Vietnam-China relations after the May and June 2011 events was significantly reduced after the visit to China by Vietnam Communist Party General Secretary Nguyen Phu Trong in October 2011 when the two sides agreed on the six basic principles in settlement of the dispute, emphasizing the importance of negotiations and friendly consultations.  [34]   Encourage ASEAN unity as a primary multilateral platform to counter Chinas assertiveness. ASEAN has certain setbacks but it cannot be denied that through DOC and other cooperation mechanisms such as ARF, FTA, ASEAN has some significant success in building mutual confidence and developing mutual interests with China. Of course, as analyzed, it is tough to forge a united and effective stance among ASEAN members; however, common interests of peace, free navigation and other legal interests under the 1982 UNCLO could be driving forces to make this more likely to happen. Deepen ties with major powers. Direct interests of maintaining free navigation in the South China Sea are motivations for these powers to align with ASEAN and Vietnam to balance against Chinas aggression. The depth and durability of commitment by these major powers, however, might be doubted because they also have their own priorities. Therefore, Vietnam should not outright rely on the outside powers to outright balance against China, but maintain a safety distance from either side and at the same time build up its capacity for self-reliance. Well prepare and announce sufficient historical and legal data to prove Vietnams sovereignty rights over the Paracel and Spartly islands; mobilize media, including social media, to effectively involve in the issue by providing transparent and correct information in order to make Chinese people and international community to understand correctly about the situation, urge the world to support Vietnam and impose pressure on China to clarify its claims. III. CONCLUSION The South China Sea dispute between Vietnam and China has become more and more sensitive and complicated because both countries are so strong in their own positions in the dispute that no one is willing to compromise their rights over the Paracel and Spratly islands a convergence of geo-politics and geo-economics. Vietnam has more credible historical and legal data to prove its sovereignty rights over the islands but the strategic significance of China to Vietnam and Chinas assertiveness put Vietnam in a policy dilemma between developing the strategic bilateral relationship and struggling to win over China in the dispute. To reduce tensions, Vietnam should have a comprehensive approach, that is, boosting bilateral ties while seeking ways to balance against China at the same time, internally or externally. In this connection, this paper recommends Vietnam to simultaneously (i) deepen its multifaceted relationship with China through Party-to-Party, Government-to-Government and People- to-People channels; (ii) continue to take advantage of ASEAN as a primary platform to counter Chinas claims; (iii) develop ties with major powers while not forget to build up self-reliance; and (iv) make public all evidence to prove Vietnams sovereignty rights to the Paracel and Spratly island in order to gain support from international community and put pressure on China to clarify its claims and deter its aggressive actions. However, it should be acknowledged that since the core of the South China Sea dispute is the territorial sovereignty that involved claimants will never want to compromise, it might too sensitive and complex for a feasible solution to thoroughly settle the dispute in a foreseeable future.